Politics And Progress The Emergence Of American...

Politics and Progress: The Emergence of American Political Science by Dennis Mahoney is an account of the origins of contemporary political science in the Progressive Movement. In the book, Mahoney, attempts to show how American political science came to be due to the influence of three different factors. The first factor is German Historicism and its allgemeine Staatslehre, or general State theory. The second factor is philosophical pragmatism and the final factor is political Progressivism. Mahoney also writes about how the new American political science has turned away from political philosophy and the laws of nature described by the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In the conclusion of the book, Mahoney points out a flaw of the modern political science by stating, â€Å" Nothing in political science as it was taught and practiced in America provided or recognized a standard against which these acts (totalitarianism) of national self-determination and these expr essions of the state will in their respective societies could be tried and found wanting.† In short, Mahoney is saying that the core concepts that helped shape American political science, can not prove that dictatorship governments are not healthy governments. The first factor that helped is German Historicism. Mahoney lays the foundation of German political science and states that not only did it influence American political ideas but was a model and even a starting point. German science ofShow MoreRelatedIs The Discrimination Against Women? Politics A Myth Or Is It Reality?1608 Words   |  7 PagesIs the discrimination against women in politics a myth or is it reality? The US prides itself on democracy. Democracy means that all citizens from all races, classes, and sexes should be represented. Even though women have made great progress since they were granted suffrage n 1920, they are still underrepresented in government. Women’s political participation since the su ffrage was basically just voting and being able to participate in secondary party organizations. Women still face several obstaclesRead MoreThe Transition Of Medieval Western Civilization970 Words   |  4 Pagesposition of global, political, and technological dominance and most importantly gave rise to the core of western thought: humanism and individualism. This hallmark thought however, would be nonexistent without the arts. The arts and artists of the Renaissance period and the Enlightenment reflect the prevailing values of not only Western Europe but in fact the Western world as a whole. Prior to the Renaissance, Europe was lost in the Middle Ages, situating itself in a rut; no progress was made and thisRead MoreImmanuel KantsWhat Is Enlightenment?964 Words   |  4 PagesAn essay written by philosopher Immanuel Kant answers the question, â€Å"What is Enlightenment?† Through his own observations and he concluded â€Å"Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity†¦ the inability to use one own understanding without the guidance of another (Kant).† Kant also recognized that he lives in an enlightened age however not in the age of enlightenment. The same can also provoke thoughts about the current state of the world now. 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Thus began the Age of DiscoveryRead MoreNative American Self Determination Movement1441 Words   |  6 Pagesfollowing on from this last point the Native American self-determination movement has achieved almost all of its victories without outside help. Indeed many organisations such as the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), Native American Rights Fund (NARF) and National Alaska Native American Indian Nurses Association (NANAINA) are run by and for Native Americans and their interests. As with most civil rights movements but even more the case as Native Americans have their own sovereign citizenshipRead MoreAvatar, By James Cameron1710 Words   |  7 PagesJames Cameron’s film, AVATAR, is set under an imperialistic narrative of invasion for commercial gain, complete with the side story of â€Å"ethnogr aphic exploration† in the name of science, on the planet of Pandora. The year is 2154, but the story is an old and familiar one - the Western colonization of non-Western peoples and the exploitation of their natural resources, such as land, oil, gold, or labor. While it is impossible to deny the impact and visual experience of the film and its commercial achievementsRead MoreComparative Politics Is An Essential Field Within Political Science1477 Words   |  6 PagesComparative politics is an essential field within political science, as it is always present and always prevalent. One of the most alluring elements of comparative politics is the stark contrast one can observe between two or more nations in terms of their sociopolitical climate. Every nation has distinct political intricacies, and one particularly controversial issue that is gaining interest globally is political corruption. Corruption can manifest itself in a myriad of ways in a nation’s government

Racism America s Original Sin - 1850 Words

Racism in America Racism has always been a part of the American history, and it still is to this day. Some of America’s forefathers, such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and many more, kept people of color as slaves for labor. The icons of American history were in fact, all white. They portrayed the view of white people being more dominant than people of color through the works of slavery. Although people in the 21st century do not hold slaves for labor, the racial prejudice has only increased. For instance, in an article entitled â€Å"The Trauma of Racism: America’s Original Sin,† the author, Kenneth T. Ponds, suggests that â€Å"However I believe something else is in play and that is a lack of understanding†¦ views equating whiteness with being fully human and truly American.† (22) The solution to this racial diversity is for Americans to accept the sameness of the human family. With this addition, Americans will be able to transform lives an d human relationships between people of different races. Nevertheless, it is argued that Americans are racists because it is a part of human nature. It has become so natural that people do not realize that they are being racist. For example, in an article entitled â€Å"Racism: Less is More,† author David Goodhart states: â€Å"It is also true that most of us operate most of the time with a shifting mindset of stereotypes and prejudices about people who belong to groups--class, national, or racial--with which we are not familiarShow MoreRelatedRacism: The Root Of All Evil1022 Words   |  5 Pagesby the sting of racism, which may lead and is directly related to immigration, violence, social tension. Racism as defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. 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To the founding father s anyone who would stand by this saying would either achieve success or be emulated for their efforts, even those who did not achieveRead MoreReparations For Slavery During The Civil War1712 Words   |  7 Pagesfunction in society. To this day in age descendents of slaves continue to suffer from the drawback slavery put on their families. Successful businesses who profited off of slavery should pay reparations to families whose ancestors were enslaved by original owners. Slavery impaired and oppressed African Americans and continue to do so in this day and age. The fact that no form of reparations were given to freed slaves affected all african americans then and for generations later. Freed slaves hadRead MoreRacism Is America Truly A Place Of Equality?2459 Words   |  10 PagesAddressing Racism Openly Many people say that racism is a thing of the past, but is it really? Is our society racism free? Is America truly a place of equality? 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The Forbidden Game The Chase Chapter 2 Free Essays

She looked in on Tom’s business law class first, but he wasn’t there. She headed downstairs. Then she began to forge her way across campus, weaving around fellow students who were staking out their favorite benches. We will write a custom essay sample on The Forbidden Game: The Chase Chapter 2 or any similar topic only for you Order Now She could hear paper bags rustling and smell other peoples’ lunches. Jenny’s group hadn’t been eating together these last two weeks-it caused too much talk. But today they had no choice. Audrey next, Jenny thought. She passed the amphitheater with its blistered wooden benches and looked into one of the home ec rooms. Audrey was taking interior decorating, and-of course-acing it. Jenny just stood in the doorway until Audrey, who was lingering with the teacher, looked up and caught her eye. Audrey shut her folder, dropped it in her backpack, and came. â€Å"What is it?† â€Å"We’ve got to get everybody,† Jenny said. â€Å"Do you have your lunch?† â€Å"Yes.† Audrey didn’t ask why they had to get everybody. She just shook spiky copper bangs out of her eyes with an expert toss of her head and pressed her cherry-glossed lips together. They cut across the center of campus toward the girls’ gym. The sun shone on Jenny’s head, sending a little trickle of dampness down the back of her neck. Too hot for May, even in California. So why did she feel so cold inside? She and Audrey peered into the girls’ locker room. Dee wasn’t even dressed yet, snapping towels and snickering with a couple of girls on the swim team. She was naked and completely unself-conscious, beautiful and lithe and supple as a jet-black panther. When she saw Jenny and Audrey looking at her significantly, she hiked an eyebrow at them, then nodded. She reached for a garnet-colored T-shirt and joined them a minute later. They found Zach in the art block, standing alone outside the photography lab. That wasn’t surprising -Zach was usually alone. What surprised Jenny was that he wasn’t inside the lab, working. Zach’s thin, intense face had always been pale, but these days it looked almost chalky, and in the last few weeks he’d taken to wearing black cotton twills and shirts. He’s changed, Jenny thought. Well, no wonder. What they’d been through would have changed anyone. He saw Jenny, who tilted her head in the general direction of the staff parking lot. The usual place. He gave a brief jerk of his head that meant agreement. He’d meet them there. They found Michael near the English block, picking up scattered papers and books from the concrete floor. â€Å"Jerks, porkers, bozos, Neanderthals,† he was muttering. â€Å"Who did it?† Jenny asked as Audrey checked Michael for bruises. â€Å"Carl Vertman and Steve Matsushima.† Michael’s round face was flushed and his dark hair even more rumpled than usual. â€Å"It would help if you kissed it here, â€Å"he said to Audrey, pointing to the corner of his mouth. Dee did a swift, flowing punch-and-kick to the air that looked like dancing. â€Å"I’ll take care of them,† she said, flashing her most barbaric smile. â€Å"Come on, we’ve got to talk,† Jenny said. â€Å"Has anybody seen Tom?† â€Å"I think he cut this morning,† Audrey said. â€Å"He wasn’t in history or English.† Wonderful, Jenny thought as Michael got his lunch. Zachary was wearing Morbid Black, Michael was getting stomped, and Tom, the super-student, was cutting whole mornings-just when she needed him most. They sat down by the parking lot on what was commonly known at Vista Grande High as the grassy knoll. Zach arrived and dropped first his lunch sack, then himself to the ground, folding his long, thin legs in one easy motion. â€Å"What’s happening?† Dee said. Jenny took a deep breath. â€Å"There’s this girl,† she said, and she did her best to describe the Crying Girl. â€Å"Probably a ninth grader,† she said. â€Å"Do any of you guys know her?† They all shook their heads. â€Å"Because she said we killed Summer and hid her body, and that she knew that P.C. didn’t do it. She sounded like somebody who really did know, and not just because she has faith in him or something.† Dee’s sloe-black eyes were narrowed. â€Å"You think-â€Å" â€Å"I think maybe she saw him that morning. And that means-â€Å" â€Å"Maybe she knows where the paper house is,† Michael said, looking more alarmed than excited. â€Å"If she does, we have to find her,† Jenny said. Michael groaned. Jenny didn’t blame him. Everything about their situation was awful. The way people looked at them now, the questions in people’s eyes-and the danger. The danger that no one but their group knew about. A lot of it was Jenny’s fault. It had been her own brilliant idea. Let’s tell the police the truth†¦. There were two policewomen. One was Hawaiian or Polynesian and model-beautiful. The other was a stocky motherly person. They both examined the pile of fragments around the sliding glass door. â€Å"But that doesn’t have anything to do with Summer,† Jenny said, and then she and Tom and Michael and Audrey explained it all again. No, it hadn’t been a UFO. Well, it had been sort of like a UFO-Julian was alien, all right, but he hadn’t broken the door. He had come out of a game-or at least he had sucked them into a game. Or at least-All right. From the beginning again. Jenny had bought the game on Montevideo Avenue, in a store called More Games. Okay? She’d bought it and brought it home and they had all opened it. Yes, they’d all been here, the six of them, plus Summer. It had been a party for Tom’s seventeenth birthday. Inside had been this cardboard house. This model. They had put it together, a Victorian house, three stories and a turret. Blue. Then they’d put these paper dolls inside that they’d colored to look like themselves. Yeah, right, they were a little old to be playing with paper dolls. But it wasn’t just a dollhouse. It was a game. The game was to draw your worst nightmare and put it in a room of the house, and then, starting at the bottom, work your way up to the top. Going through each different person’s nightmare as you went. It had seemed like a good game. Only then it turned real. Yes, real. Real. How many different ways were there to say real? Real! They had all sort of passed out, and when they woke up, they were in the house. Inside it. It wasn’t cardboard anymore. It was solid, like an ordinary house. Then Julian had showed up. Who was Julian? What was Julian, that was the question. If you thought of him as a demon prince, you wouldn’t be too far off. He called himself the Shadow Man. The Shadow Man. Like the Sandman, only he brings nightmares. Look, the point was that Julian had killed Summer. He made her face her worst nightmare, which was a messy room. Piles of garbage and giant cockroaches. Yes, it did sound funny, but it wasn’t†¦. No, none of them had read Kafka. Look, it wasn’t funny because it had killed Summer. She’d been buried in a garbage dump from hell, under piles of filth and rotting stuff. They’d heard her screaming and screaming, and then finally the screaming had stopped. The body? For God’s sake, where else would the body be? It was there, buried in rubbish, in the paper house, in the Shadow World. No! The sliding glass door did not have anything to do with it. That had happened after they escaped from the Shadow World. Jenny had tricked Julian and locked him behind a door with a rune of constraint on it. When they got back to the real world, Jenny had put the paper house back in the game box, and then they’d called the police. Yes, that was the call made at 6:34 this morning. While they were on the phone, they’d heard glass breaking and come out to see two guys taking the box over the back fence. Why would anybody want to steal the box? Well, these guys had been following Jenny when she bought the Game. And seeing the Game-it did something to you. Once you saw that glossy white box, you wanted it, no matter what. The guys had probably followed Jenny home just to get the box. NO, SUMMER DIDN’T GO THAT WAY, TOO! SUMMER WASN’T THERE! SUMMER WAS ALREADY DEAD BY THEN! It was only after telling it that Jenny saw how crazy the story sounded. At first the police wouldn’t believe that Summer was really missing, no matter how many times Tom demanded a lie detector test. The police finally began to believe when they called Summer’s parents and found that nobody had seen her since last night. By then Jenny and the others were sitting in the detective bureau around a large table with detectives’ desks all around them. By then Jenny had picked out pictures of the two guys who’d stolen the game. P.C. Serrani and Scott Martell, better known as Slug, a name he’d chosen himself. They both had records for shoplifting and joyriding. P.C. was the one who’d been wearing the bandanna and black leather vest, Slug the one in the flannels with the bad complexion. And it turned out that they were both missing, too. The worst part was when Summer’s parents came down to the station to ask Jenny where Summer really was. They didn’t understand why Jenny, who had known Summer since fourth grade, wouldn’t tell them the truth now. The kids finally were given a drug-screening test because Summer’s father insisted their story sounded exactly like things he’d seen in the sixties. Like a very, very bad trip. Mrs. Parker-Pearson kept saying, â€Å"Whatever Summer’s done, it doesn’t matter. Just tell us where she is.† It was horrible. Aba was the one who finally stopped it. Just at the point when the fuss got the biggest and noisiest, she appeared. She was wearing a brilliant orange garment that was more like a robe than a dress, and an orange headcloth like a turban. She was Dee’s grandmother, but she looked like visiting royalty. She asked the police to leave her alone with the children. Then Jenny, shaking all over, told the story again. From the beginning. When it was over, she looked at each of them. At Tom, the champion athlete, sitting with his normally neat dark hair wildly tousled. At Audrey, the ever-chic, with her mascara rubbed off from sobbing. At Zach, the unshakable photographer, whose gray eyes were glassy with shock. At Michael, with his rumpled head in his arms. At Dee, the only one of them still sitting up straight, proud and tense and furious, her hair glistening like mica with sweat. At Jenny, who had looked back at her with a mute plea for understanding. Then Aba looked down at her own interlaced fingers, sculptor’s fingers, long and beautiful even if they were knotted with age. â€Å"I’ve told you a lot of stories,† she said to Jenny, â€Å"but there’s a famous one I don’t think you’ve heard. It’s a Hausa story. My ancestors were those-who-speak-Hausa, you know, and my mother told me this when I was just a little girl.† Michael slowly lifted his head from the table. â€Å"Once there was a hunter who went out into the bush, and he found a skull lying on the ground. He said, although he was really speaking to himself, ‘Why, how did you get here?’ â€Å"To his astonishment, the skull answered, ‘I got here through talking, my friend.'† Tom leaned forward, listening. Audrey stared. She didn’t know Aba as well as the rest of them. Aba went right on. â€Å"The hunter was very excited. He ran back to his village and told everyone that he had seen a talking skull. When the chief of the village heard, he asked the hunter to take him to the marvelous skull. â€Å"So the hunter took the chief to the skull. ‘Talk,’ he said, but the skull just lay there. The chief was so angry at being tricked that he cut off the hunter’s head and left it lying on the ground. â€Å"Once the chief was gone, the skull said to the severed head beside it, ‘Why, how did you get here?’ And the head replied, ‘I got here through talking, my friend!'† In the long silence afterward, Jenny could hear distant telephones ringing and voices outside the room. â€Å"You mean,† Michael said finally, â€Å"that we’ve been talking too much?† â€Å"I mean that you don’t need to tell everything you know to everyone. There is a time to be silent. Also, you don’t have to insist that your view is the only one, even if you honestly believe it. That hunter might have lived if he’d said, ‘I think a skull talked to me, but I may have dreamed it.'† â€Å"But we didn’t dream it,† Jenny whispered. What Aba said then made all the difference. It made everything easier somehow. â€Å"I believe you,† she said quietly and laid a gentle, knotted hand on Jenny’s. When the police came back, everyone was calm. Jenny’s group now admitted that while they thought they were telling the truth, it could have been some sort of dream or hallucination. The police now theorized that something really had happened to Summer, something so awful that the kids just couldn’t accept what they’d seen, and so had made up a hysterical story to cover the memory. Teenagers were especially prone to mass hallucination, Inspector Somebody explained to Aba. If they could pass a lie detector test, proving they hadn’t done anything to Summer †¦ They passed. Then the police released them into the custody of their parents, and Jenny went home and slept for sixteen hours straight. When she woke up, it was Sunday and Summer was still missing. So were Slug and P.C. That was how the Center got started. The new idea was that Slug and P.C. had made off with Summer, or that someone else had made off with all three. The local shopping mall donated space for a search center. Hundreds of volunteers went out looking in stormpipes and ditches and Dumpsters. There was nothing Jenny could do to stop any of it. Every day the volunteers did more, the search got bigger. She felt awful. But then she realized something. Summer’s body wasn’t in a Dumpster-but the paper house might be. It wouldn’t do any good searching for Summer, but it might do some good to search for Slug and P.C. â€Å"Because,† she pointed out bleakly to Dee and the others, â€Å"they got into the paper house, all right. And that means they might get up to the third floor. And that means they might open a certain door and let Julian out. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  After that they went out every day with the other volunteers, looking for a clue to where Slug Martell and P.C. Serrani might have taken the Game. It was a race against time, Jenny thought. To get to the house before Slug and P.C. got to Julian. Because after what she had done to Julian, tricking him and locking him behind that door, and after what she had promised him-telling him she’d stay with him forever-and then running away †¦ If he ever got out, he would find her. He’d hunt her down. And he’d take his revenge. On the grassy knoll Michael was still groaning at the thought of finding the Crying Girl. â€Å"She probably doesn’t know anything,† Zach said, his eyes gray as winter clouds. â€Å"She probably just wonders if maybe we did it. Deep down, I think everybody wonders.† Jenny looked around at the group: Dee sprawled lazily on the grass, dark limbs gleaming; Audrey perched on a folder to save her white tuxedo pant-suit; Michael with his teddy-bear body and sarcastic spaniel eyes; and Zach sitting like some kind of Tibetan monk with a ponytail. They didn’t look like murderers. But what Zach was saying was true, and it was just like him to say it. â€Å"We’ve got to go postering today anyway,† Audrey said. â€Å"We might as well look for this girl while we’re at it.† â€Å"It’s not going to make any difference,† Zach said flatly. How to cite The Forbidden Game: The Chase Chapter 2, Essay examples

Womens Rights Through History free essay sample

First, a strong example of women’s roles in the late 1800’s is represented in the document â€Å"The Husband Commandments† by H. De Marsan. It gives a fairly accurate portrayal of how men looked down upon women and how they had a very strict lifestyle given by their husbands in order to be the ideal wife that their husband wished for them to be. For example, it states that women should â€Å"Honour Thy Husband and Obey Him†. Women’s roles in this time period were very strict and the wives had no room for error. However, an example from the late 1800’s on what women’s roles used to be would be from â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†. Which is about effect of confinement on the narrators mental health, and her descent into psychosis, and with nothing to stimulate her, she becomes obsessed by the pattern and color of the wallpaper. It shows that women and men did not have equal parts in relationships. We will write a custom essay sample on Womens Rights Through History or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The story illustrates the male dominated society and relationship and how it was customary for men to assume that their gender knew what, when, how, and why to do things. For example when the narrator says, â€Å"If a physician of high standing, and ones own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depressiona slight hysterical tendency what is one to do? † (Gilman) Throughout the beginning of the story, the narrator tends to buy into the idea that the man is always right and makes excuses for her feelings and his actions and words. Honesty is one of the most important characteristics a relationship should have. In this case, the narrator feels that she can not tell him how she feels so as not to upset him and make him mad. When the woman does attempt to have a discussion with John, she ends up crying and not being able to express herself. John treats her like a child as men believed that crying is something that women do and is something that shows weakness. The narrator eventually goes against common culture in that era and goes insane. Men thought the feminist movement was weak and useless, while comparatively, men like John thought their wives were weak and useless outside the home. This example shows how lowly men thought of their wives and how many wives were often treated like children. Next, an example of a short story that depicts women in the mid 1900’s was The Life You Save May Be Your Own by Flannery O’Connor. In this story the image of women being pure and innocent is emphasized greatly. O’Connor gives the image that the perfect woman is pure and divine and has very high expectations. There is a lot of religious symbolism in this story making the holiness of women in the mid 1900’s much higher. Also, occurring in the 1950’s is the poem by Anne Sexton, Self in 1958. This poem depicts women’s roles as the perfect ‘plastic doll’ expectation. Sexton makes the role of women seem to have to be a perfect role no matter what. It displays the way many relationships tended to be in the 1950’s. Her relationship with her spouse is one of pretension and not genuine love. She is imprisoned in ‘solid’ by their noise. The word ‘solid’ denotes lack of flexibility in their relationship and in the woman‘s life. The ‘noise’ referring to the loud commands from her husband not giving her freedom at all. The woman is living a life that is small and has limited possibilities. Additionally, Raising A Son With Men on the Fringes by Robyn Marks, Is a portrayal of how the average woman is supposed to raise her children and be expected to maintain the expected behavior that women have. It also shows how women’s roles have changed and that men can be on the ‘fringes’ and get away with it. However if the woman in this story wanted to act like the man, it would have been looked down upon and since she was a black woman she was facing many more struggles then a white single mother would. This reveals how women can’t back out of their responsibilities and have more pressure. On the other hand, in the modern day, women‘s roles are very superficial and based on the perfect image. An example of this is based on â€Å"Seventeen† magazine’s January 2009 issue, it displays the perfect figure by a picture of Beyonce. It has big labels saying ‘Pretty Looks for You’ and ‘Get Your Best Body’. This shows that today in the modern day women are just basically expected to have the perfect body and looks. Another example would be in the magazine â€Å"Mother Baby,† there is always a picture of the mother and baby and very rarely the father is mentioned in these magazines. This portrays the image that women are supposed to be the primary caretaker of children even if they are working. In conclusion, women’s power, roles and societal expectations have changed since the 1880’s in some ways but are incredibly same in others. In comparison to the 1880’s women are still given a ‘perfect’ image in media and by others and have high expectations in society to live up to them. Also, their roles as caretaker are still highly enforced and are expected to be the mother and go through the struggles as the mother mostly by herself and the father does not have a caretaker expectation. The thing that has changed is the power women have now compared to then. Women have more power to be a single mother when the man they are with is not a loving man. However, this is a huge deal of work and responsibility for women. Women have the capability that they didn’t have in the 1880’s to stand up for themselves, work and be individualists. Therefore in conclusion, women still have the same roles and similar societal expectations but their power in society has changed drastically. Matlis

Kants Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World

Over the years various issues have developed in the world. Things that were once clear cut as either morally wrong or right, have become very contentious. Various philosophers have studied and proposed different ideas on the subject of morality. Kant’s moral philosophy holds that the final result of an action has no value; the value of an action lies on the motivation behind it (Kant, 3). Kant argued that there exists an unconditional and absolute requirement that all other moral obligations are based on.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In order for one to uphold the highest moral law, his or her actions must conform to this requirement which he termed as the categorical imperative (Kant, 15). Kant’s ideology can however be seen as too simplistic when dealing with the modern society characterized by actions tha t cannot be easily categorized as morally right or wrong; those that may be termed as morally ambiguous. Kant, a German philosopher, undertook a study to find the ultimate principle on morality. Kant identified three maxims that would enable one to identify morally right or wrong actions. The first maxim states that every person should act in such a manner that the action would be the right action for other people in similar situations (Kant, 14). The second maxim states that an action is morally right if it treat others not as a means to an end but as an end in themselves (Kant, 29). The final maxim is a summation of the first two and it states that a moral action occurs when one acts as if his actions were setting a universal law that could be used by others under the same circumstances (Kant, 24). When Kant was developing his moral philosophy, the society was mainly religious and culture played a big part in shaping how people acted. The contemporary society is however less gover ned by religion or culture and science (logic) plays a big part on how people make decisions or act. Actions that were previously termed morally inappropriate are under fire with people trying to understand what makes an action morally right or wrong. Kant’s categorical imperative has three formulations that govern all moral action. These formulations can be summed up by the universality principle that states that all actions should be carried out in such a manner that they become universal laws without contradiction (Kant, 30). This formulation in itself is too simplistic for the complicated modern society that we live in. One contentious issue in modern societies has been that of abortion. According to the requirements of categorical imperative, it would be morally wrong for a woman to carry out an abortion.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kant argues that the moral value of an action is not based on its results but on its underlying principle and such action should be such that it can be universally adopted. As such, abortion which is mainly carried out to preserve the happiness, well-being or priorities of the woman, goes against this formulation (Denis, 548). Kant also puts forward the principles of good will and duty. According to Kant, good will is that will that is derived from moral laws and has no qualifications (Kant, 5). Kant argued that the expected results of an action are morally neutral and not important when considering morality. He added that good will is the only basis that the value of morality can be recognized. Kant also argued that duty determines whether an action is moral right or wrong. Kant argued that since the moral value of an action does not derive from the expected results, it must then be derived from the principle under which the action is carried out regardless of personal desires or surrounding circumstances (Kant, 7). It is the basic human duty to populate the world and ensure the continuity of life. Abortion goes against this duty thus it must be considered morally wrong. Modern medicine has enabled deformities and complications to be identified before birth. Kant’s argument is ineffective as it would be cruel to give birth to a child who will suffer constantly or to put the life of the mother in jeopardy due to pregnancy complications (Denis, 560). Kant’s morality principle is too simplistic and fails to take into account circumstances that have developed in the contemporary societies. Decision making in modern societies is carried out with regards to a multi-cultured society as a whole. Simplistic ground rules cannot effectively cover all situations under which an action may be undertaken. Abortion is an action involving two parties, the agent and the fetus. The fetus cannot be deemed a rational being hence Kant may propose that laws of morality do not apply to it. However, the fetus is a part of the continuity of life and according to instinct (nature), child birth is a duty common to all. It is thus morally wrong to carry out an abortion as it goes against this duty. Kant’s philosophy cannot cover all aspects found in many contentious issues of the modern world hence it has no place in contemporary society. Works Cited Denis, Lara. â€Å"Abortion and Kant’s Formula of Universal Law.† Canadian Journal of  Philosophy 37.4 (2007): 547-580Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. Trans. Jonathan Bennet. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995 This essay on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World was written and submitted by user Eloise Butler to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Applications of fluorescent protein-based biosensors for the elucidation of protein function within cells Essays

Applications of fluorescent protein-based biosensors for the elucidation of protein function within cells Essays Applications of fluorescent protein-based biosensors for the elucidation of protein function within cells Essay Applications of fluorescent protein-based biosensors for the elucidation of protein function within cells Essay Biosensors are used for sensing of an analyte ( e.g. a little molecule, a protein, or an enzymatic activity ) and its interaction with a molecular acknowledgment component, MRE ( e.g. a protein sphere ) . It consists of 3 parts ; the sensitive biological component, the transducer or sensor component ( which transforms the signal resulting from the interaction into another signal that can be more easy measured and quantified ) , and signal processors ( show consequences ) . Biorecognition processes require biosensors to hold the ability to transduce an event into an discernible alteration e.g. coloring material or fluorescence hue i.e. an effectual transducer component. A alteration frequently attach toing an event is an change of the geometry of the MRE ( distance alteration between the MRE and its analyte protein-protein interaction, or a conformational alteration of the MRE allosteric proteins ) . In recent old ages, biochemists adapted the term biosensor to mention to genetically encoded designed proteins that are self-sufficing sensing systems for a figure of marks. The chief difference between conventional biosensors and genetically encoded biosensors is the nature of the transducer. Conventionally, a transducer is a man-made and modified surface that is electrochemically or optically sensitive to the action of the biomolecule. In contrast, the pick of transducer for a genetically encoded biosensor is constrained to being genetically encoded ( 1 ) . Aequorea green fluorescent protein ( FP ) and its discrepancies are a critical constituent of genetically encoded biosensors. The scope of FP-based biosensors which include different designs can be used by research workers to supervise alterations in the geometry of an MRE through the assorted features of the FPs e.g. transition of the fluorescence chromaticity or strength of an intrinsically fluorescent protein. The usage of genetically encoded FP-based biosensors offers several advantages compared to other techniques ( such as dye-based investigations ) . They are comparatively easy to build utilizing standard molecular biological science techniques and can be used to analyze protein localization of function and kineticss within life cells. The latter occurs through the non-invasive debut of these biosensors into cells ( they are produced utilizing cellular machinery ) where they can obtain information of specific biochemical and biorecognition procedures from any one of a broad scope of cellular compartments without interfering with the interaction ( 2 ) . All genetically encoded FP-based biosensors can be assembled into the undermentioned 5 groups depending on their construction: * Group 1 intramolecular FRET-based biosensors * Group 2 intermolecular FRET-based biosensors * Group 3 BiFC-based biosensors * Group 4 individual FP-based biosensors with an exogenic MRE * Group 5 individual FP-based biosensors with an endogenous MRE Group 1 biosensors are based on intramolecular Forster Resonance Energy Transfer ( FRET ) . FRET is the distance- and orientation-dependent nonradiative transportation of internal energy from a higher-energy giver fluorophore to a lower-energy acceptor fluorophore through dipole-dipole yoke. FRET-based biosensors have all of their constituents on a individual polypeptide concatenation ( two FPs flanking an MRE ) and the analyte brings about a alteration in the construction or conformation of the MRE unit ( see Fig 1 ) . Modulating the distance or comparative orientations between the fluorophores affects the FRET efficiency, which is revealed by the acceptor ( IA ) /donor ( ID ) emanation ratio i.e. an addition in IA at the disbursal of ID. FRET occurs about outright and is reversible, therefore supplying better declaration than the BiFC method ( discussed subsequently ) ( 3 ) . Application of this biosensor design includes sensing of proteolytic activities. An MRE consisting of a polypeptide that is a substrate for the peptidase under probe is used to observe proteolytic activity. Tsai MT et Al ( 4 ) late carried out a survey to supervise intracellular human enterovirus ( HEV ) peptidase activity by utilizing a HEV 3C peptidase FRET-based biosensor. They found that this system was a agency for rapid sensing, quantification and drug susceptibleness proving for HEVs. FRET-based biosensors can besides be used to observe post-translational alteration ( PTM ) enzymes activities. An MRE with the ability to observe PTM enzyme activity ( catalyses the covalent alteration of a substrate ) is composed of a specific substrate and a binding sphere. The MRE so undergoes geometry alterations in response to PTM activity. This attack was late used to observe ERK ( kinase enzyme ) activity. EKAR, a genetically encoded FRET-based detector of ERK activity was designed and te sted. EKAR selectively and reversibly reported ERK activity after EGF stimulation in HEK293 cells, leting for the analysis of ERK signalling in life cells ( 5 ) . A 3rd application of this design is to observe MRE conformational alterations triggered by the presence of its analyte. Some proteins e.g. bacterial periplasmic binding proteins ( 6 ) undergo such a alteration. Consequently, they have been used to do FRET based biosensors for analytes such as glucose, Ca2+ and Zn2+ . Group 2 includes biosensors based on intermolecular FRET. The two FPs are in two different polypeptide ironss ( the MRE is fused to one FP and the analyte protein is fused to another ) and are brought closer together by a protein-protein interaction ( see Fig 2 ) . This design has been used to analyze the oligomerisation province of different members of the G-protein-coupled-receptor ( GPCR ) superfamily. It has besides been used to analyze mGluR1 activation. Marcaggi P et Al ( 7 ) employed the FRET phenomenon to analyze the activation dynamicss of mGluR1. The writers show that the alterations in FRET correlative with activation of the receptor. Care must be taken when construing intermolecular FRET consequences, since FRET may perchance happen between two proteins that show no interactions straight. There may besides be fluctuation in the look degree of the two halves of the biosensor. This is of peculiar concern when ratiometric measurings are taken. Group 3 biosensors, bimolecular fluorescence complementation ( BiFC ) , enable direct visual image of protein interactions in life cells. The BiFC attack is based on the reconstitution of a fluorescent composite when two proteins ( MRE and analyte ) , fused to non-fluorescent fragments of a fluorescent protein, interact with each other. The interaction between the merger proteins facilitates the association between the fragments of the fluorescent protein ( see Fig 3 ) . This attack enables visual image of a assortment of protein-protein interactions in the normal cellular environment. BiFC composites have been visualized in all major subcellular compartments of mammalian cells, including lysosomes, the plasma membrane, lamellipodia, Golgi, the endoplasmic Reticulum, chondriosome, viral atoms, and lipid droplets. It has provided particular penetration into the ordinance of complex localization of function including atomic translocation ( 8 ) . It has besides been used in a survey of the grippe A polymerase composite to find the interaction between its 3 fractional monetary units ( PA, PB1 and PB2 ) required for the written text and reproduction of the viral genome. It revealed a antecedently unknown PA-PB2 interaction and provided a model for farther probe of the biological relevancy of the PA-PB2 interaction in the polymerase activity and viral reproduction of grippe A virus ( 9 ) . A motley BiFC check may besides be used for coincident imagination of more than one event in unrecorded cells. This check is based on the formation of fluorescent composites with diffe rent spectra through the association of fragments belonging to different FPs, making Chimeras with a assortment of fluorescent chromaticities ( see Fig 4 ) . This technique was used in a survey to look into the oligomerization province of adenosine A ( 2A ) and dopamine D2 GPCRs found to be ligand-dependent, and besides how they were affected by the presence of certain drugs ( 10 ) . A restriction of the BiFC attack is that there is a hold ( dependent on the sensitiveness of the sensing method ) between the clip when the merger proteins interact with each other and the clip when the complex becomes fluorescent. This is due to the slow rate of the chemical reactions required to bring forth the fluorophore. Therefore, an advantage of FRET over BiFC analysis is that real-time sensing of complex formation and dissociation is possible. Group 4 biosensors use an exogenic MRE inserted into a individual FP at certain locations. Information about the birecognition event from the MRE is carried to the chromophore altering its spectral belongingss ( see Fig 5 ) . A biosensor with this design was used in a recent survey by Berg J et Al ( 11 ) . The detector was constructed by uniting cmpVenus ( a circularly permuted discrepancy of green fluorescent protein ) with a bacterial regulative protein ; GlnK1 ( used an ATP specific MRE ) . Binding of ATP caused conformational alterations in GlnK1 protein which ratiometrically changed the excitement profile of cmpVenus. Initially, the purpose was to find the ATP concentration. However, as ADP binds to the same site ( bring forthing a smaller alteration in fluorescence than ATP ) , competition between the two substrates made the detector more suited for ratiometric measuring of ATP: ADP concentration ratio by excitation. , in unrecorded cells. This is a all right illustration of tuning and optimizing biosensors. The same design has been used for Ca2+ , Zn2+ and cGMP sensing in other surveies. Group 5 biosensors besides use a individual FP but with an endogenous MRE. An illustration of this design is a redox-sensitive GFP ( roGFP ) . By permutation of two surface-exposed residues on the Aequorea Victoria green fluorescent protein with cysteines in appropriate places to organize disulfide bonds, redox-sensitive GFPs ( roGFPs ) were created, which allowed for ratiometric measuring of the cell oxidation-reduction position ( 12 ) . This theoretical account has late been improved through merger of roGFP to human glutaredoxin-1 ( Glx1 ) , which catalyses rapid equilibration between roGFP and glutathione, bettering the response rate of roGFP ( 13 ) . Most FP discrepancies show pH-dependent alteration in their spectral belongingss, which consequences in a alteration in their fluorescence strength. This makes measurings hard to graduate. To get the better of this restriction, the pH-dependent alterations in EGFP ( an engineered avGFP discrepancy ) fluorescence life-time have late been imaged, instead than strength, as the former does non depend on fluorophore concentration ( 14 ) . It must be noted that some designs do non suit the 5 chief classs. Esposito et Al ( 15 ) displayed an interesting illustration of FRET-based pH biosensor that is composed of a pH-insensitive giver fluorophore and a pH-sensitive acceptor fluorophore. Unlike the conventional FRET-based biosensors that depend on the alterations in comparative distance and/or orientation of the fluorophores, this biosensor depends on the spectral alterations of the acceptor fluorophore that accompany pH alterations which in bend change the overlap built-in impacting FRET. Decision As research continues, life scientists will look to engineer a complete set of biosensors that are specifically tuned to the conditions of the event under probe. In add-on to building new biosensors, it is of import to go on bettering the specificity of the current theoretical accounts. This may even happen through incidental findings such as that found in the survey by Berg J et Al, which looked ab initio at ATP concentration but subsequently found that the biosensor was a better index of the ATP: ADP concentration ratio ( see above ) . Another avenue which can be explored is the monitoring of more than one cellular event through a combination of different types of biosensors. An interesting illustration of this is a survey by Ai H W et Al ( 16 ) which looks at observing caspase-3 activity in the cytol and nucleus utilizing two FRET braces at the same time. This survey shows how the usage of this brace preserved the temporal declaration of the caspase-3 activity in the cytol and in the karyon. Despite the unknown and yet to be explored, there has been immense advancement in the development of genetically encoded biosensors. Through such devices, researches now have an increased ability to image specific biochemical and biorecognition procedures with the saving of subcellular information. Mentions 1. Campbell, R. E. Fluorescent-Protein-Based Biosensors: Transition of Energy Transfer as a Design Principle. Anal. Chem. 2009 ; 81:5972-5979 2. Ibraheem, A. and Campbell, R. E. Designs and application of fluorescent protein-based biosensors. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2010 ; 14:30-36 3. Wang, Y. X. et Al. Fluorescence proteins, live-cell imagination, and mechanobiology: visual perception is believing. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2008 ; 10:1-38 4. Tsai, M. T. et Al. Real-time monitoring of human enterovirus ( HEV ) -infected cells and anti-HEV 3C peptidase authority by fluorescence resonance energy transportation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 ; 53:748-755 5. Harvey, C. D. et Al. A genetically encoded fluorescent detector of ERK activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008 ; 105:19264-19269 6. Dwyer, M. A. and Hellinga, H. W. Periplasmic binding proteins: a various superfamily for protein technology. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2004 ; 14:495-504 7. Marcaggi, P. et Al. Optical measuring of mGluR1 conformational alterations reveals fast activation, slow inactivation, and sensitisation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2009 ; 106:11388-11393 8. Kerppola, T. K. Biomolecular fluorescence complementation ( BiFC ) analysis as a investigation of protein interactions in life cells. Annu Rev Biophys. 2008 ; 37:465-487 9. Hemerka, J. N. et Al. Detection and word picture of grippe A virus PA-PB2 interaction through a bimolecular fluorescence complementation check. J Virol. 2009 ; 83:3944-3955 10. Vidi, P. A. et Al. Ligand-dependent oligomerization of Dopastat D2 and adenosine A ( 2A ) receptors in populating neural cells. Mol Pharmacol. 2008 ; 74:544-551 11. Berg, J. et Al. A genetically encoded fluorescent newsman of ATP: ADP ratio. Nat Methods. 2009 ; 6:161-166 12. Hanson, G. T. et Al. Investigating mitochondrial redox potency with redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein indexs. J Biol Chem. 2004 ; 279:13044-13053 13. Gutscher, M. et Al. Real-time imagination of the intracellular glutathione oxidation-reduction potency. Nat Methods. 2008 ; 5:553-559 14. Nakabayashi, T. et Al. Application of fluorescence life-time imagination of enhanced green fluorescent protein to intracellular pH measurings. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2008 ; 7:668-670 15. Esposito, A. et Al. pHlameleons: a household of FRET-based protein detectors for quantitative pH imagination. Biochemistry. 2008 ; 47:13115-13126 16. Ai, H.W. et Al. Fluorescent protein FRET brace for ratiometric imagination of double biosensors. Nat Methods. 2008 ; 5:401-403 6

Discuss Ji-li Jiangs conflict between her support of communist ideals Essay

Discuss Ji-li Jiangs conflict between her support of communist ideals and her support of friends and family - Essay Example Factories and businesses came to a halt. The break out of violence and injustice was becoming more and more common. And perhaps worst of all, families were being broken up, members were being forced to betray and turn on one another, former friends and neighbors were turning away and abandoning those who became victims of the chaos to their pitiful fate. Ji-li, the protagonist is a twelve year old 'golden girl' of Communist China. She is clever, pretty and popular in school. Her very name means 'lucky and beautiful' (Ji-li Jiang:1) in Chinese and it appears as though the careful thought paid by her parents in naming her predicted her fate accurately. She loved China and the Communist party. 'Heaven and earth are great, but greater still is the kindness of the Communist Party; father and mother are dear, but dearer still is Chairman Mao' (Ji-li Jiang:2) However, all of this disappeared like a shattering window when Chairman Mao' Cultural Revolution turned everything Ji-li held dear onto its head. One of the central targets of the new regime was the idea of the 'four olds' (Ji-li Jiang :28-29) which China's society must be purged of. The things that used to be respected and valued have become things of ridicule. When her family is targeted and her home ransacked, Ji-li realizes that her place in the world has changed completely. Everything she used to be proud of has become a liability to be ashamed of and to hide. Even her family, which used to occupy the center of her life and form the foundation of her belief and support of the Communist ideology is now a great danger to her wellbeing. Her family is a firm part and example of the 'four olds,' old ideas, old cultures, old customs and old habits. Being part of this family and this class makes Ji-li a target and a victim in the new society. Evidence of her paternal grandfather's past reveals him, and thus his whole family, as 'filthy capitalists' and perhaps worse, as landlords. In the context of China's economic history, this revelation is a disaster. For the next three years her family become outcasts. They are labeled as members of tainted class. Ji-li and her siblings, being the children of capitalists and full members of their class become 'black whelps' and are spared none of the hardships and tortures of the rest of their family. They become pariahs, reviled by friends and neighbors, with no where to go and no one to turn to. While her mother's health deteriorates and her family begins to collapse all around her, Ji-li's father is taken to prison and the family become even more condemned and isolated. The ugly characteristics of the new regime, that causes students to renounce unpopular teachers and parents to fear their own children's condemnation become ever more apparent. (Ji-li Jiang:265-272 epilogue) In a strange way however, this trial of her family, brings Ji-li closer to her family than she ever could have become had none of it happened. She is marked as a member of her family, and must bare this mark everywhere she goes and with everyone she meets. The situation is analogous to that of the Jews during the holocaust who reported becoming more Jewish and having their identity cemented by the ordeal and common hardship they experienced together. Ji-li know's she is a part of her family in a way perhaps more real than most people ever experience. She is

Classifying Chihuahuas and Saint Bernards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Classifying Chihuahuas and Saint Bernards - Essay Example Bernard breeds are of the same species. Artificial selection, which involves cross breeding different dogs, has led to the many and different dog breeds seen today. The Saint Bernard and Chihuahua are good examples of the big difference created as they are extremely different in terms of looks and size. This great difference is only phenotypical and does not affect their gene pool. Phenotypical variation is evident in many animals of the same species and is also evident in humans. Therefore, the difference in look and size between the Saint Bernard and Chihuahua does not prove that they are different species. Galibert, Quignon, Hitte and Andrà © (2011), point out that the need for dogs to perform different tasks was a strong impetus towards artificial selection and the creation of more breeds. This creation, although leading to different phenotype characteristics as evident in the Saint Bernard and Chihuahua, does not change the fact that the dogs are still in the same gene pool. And can therefore, interbreed and have offspring. In conclusion, although having many phenotypical differences and great visible variations, the Chihuahua and the Saint Bernard are still in the same gene pool and are classified in the same species group, canis

Qualitative Approaches To Researching Management And Organisation Research Proposal - 1

Qualitative Approaches To Researching Management And Organisation - Research Proposal Example Many European countries host carnivals in the cities and other festivals which are times when the local population indulge in local cultural activities and events that the students may indulge in willingly. On the other hand, accommodation for students entering universities for their first time are often offered and managed by universities, but not all. At times the universities may not have enough university accommodation for all the students they enrol and this brings up a sense of disparity among the students. This means that some of the students who have secured places at the various universities will need to be quiet proactive in getting accommodation definitely from the private sector and other avenues. Other circumstances that may lead to the students look for alternative or private accommodation may be due to the provision of shared rooms by the university that may make some uncomfortable. Other hostels may not be up to the desired standards while some of the students may wish to take university accommodation as they prepare to make their way out to private accommodations that is more to their taste. Whereas this may be the will of the students to get private accommodation, some of the universities are more willing to give the students the options of going ahead with this without any penalties. This research will serve as a basis for university management and organisers to give an overview of the challenges that the students face during their entry period to the universities. There are numerous challenges encountered by students especially foreigners who have no idea of the way things roll in new environments. This research will give an overview to enhancing the accommodation procedures as well as ease the hustle that first years undergo in trying to settle into new environments. There is evidence in some of the universities especially in the United Kingdom of strategic

Health Belief Model and Hypertension Treatment Compliance

Health Belief Model and Hypertension Treatment Compliance The health belief model and compliance with hypertension treatment Running title: Health Belief Model and Compliance in Hypertension Pauline E. Osamor and Olanike A. Ojelabi Pauline E. Osamor,  Institute of Child Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, Olanike A. Ojelabi,  Worcester State University, Urban Studies Department, Worcester, MA 01605, USA Author contributions: Osamor PE, contributed to the conception and design of the study; all authors contributed to the writing and critical revision of the manuscript. Biostatistics statement: The study was designed, analysed and data interpreted by the authors. Data available in this manuscript did NOT involve a biostatistician. Conflict-of-interest statement: The author reports no conflicts of interest in this work. Data sharing statement: No additional data are available Abstract AIM: To explore the use of the Health Belief Model (HBM) in evaluating care seeking and treatment compliance among hypertensive adults in south-west, Nigeria. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire to obtain information from 440 hypertensive adults in an urban, low-socio-economic community, situated in south west Nigeria. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with a subset of the population. The relationship between treatment compliance and responses to questions that captured various components of the HBM was investigated using chi-square tests. Content analysis was used to analyze data from the FGD sessions and to provide context to the survey responses. Data entry and management was carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11.0. RESULTS: The components of the HBM reflecting Perceived Susceptibility components were significantly associated with treatment compliance. On the other hand, HBM Perceived Seriousness components were not significantly associated with compliance. The main HBM Perceived Benefit of Taking Action component that was prominent was the belief that hypertension could be cured by treatment, a theme that emerged from both the survey and the FGD. CONCLUSION: Use of the HBM as a framework is helpful in identifying perceptions and behaviors associated with hypertension treatment compliance. Key words: Health belief model; Compliance; Hypertension; Community-based; Nigeria Core tip: Hypertension is a major health problem in developing and developed countries, and treatment compliance for such chronic conditions is often poor. In this study, the Health Belief Model (HBM) was used to evaluate care seeking and treatment compliance among hypertensive adults. HBM proved to be a valuable framework to develop and modify public health interventions and also serves to improve treatment compliance and reduce the risk of complications. Osamor PE, Ojelabi OA. The health belief model and compliance with hypertension treatment. World J Hypertension 2017; INTRODUCTION Hypertension, otherwise known as high blood pressure, is a leading cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD) worldwide[1]. The proportion of the global burden of disease attributable to hypertension has significantly increased from about 4.5 percent (nearly 1 billion adults) in 2000 to 7 percent in 2010[2-9]. This makes hypertension a major global public health challenge and the single most important cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The prevalence of hypertension in Nigeria may form a substantial proportion of the total burden in Africa. This is because of the large population of the country currently estimated to be over 170 million[3,6,10]. In Nigeria, hypertension is the commonest non-communicable disease with over 4.3 million Nigerians above the age of 15 classified as being hypertensive using the erstwhile national guidelines (systolic BP > 160 mmHg and diastolic BP > 90 mmHg)[12-15]. Treatment of hypertension rests on a combination of lifestyle interventions and use of antihypertensive medication. However, poor compliance with treatment is often common in hypertension. Studies of treatment compliance have explored the role of various factors, including demographic and socio-behavioral features of patients, the type and source of therapeutic regimen, and the patient-provider relationship[16]. Yet, a common framework for evaluating such factors is often lacking. One such framework is the Health Belief Model (HBM),which has shown utility in evaluating compliance with antihypertensive medications[17-20]. Health Belief Model The Health Belief Model (HBM) is an intrapersonal health behavior and psychological model. This model has been commonly applied to studying and promoting the uptake of health services and adoption of health behaviors[21]. Recently, a National Institutes of Health publication, Theory at a Glance, A Guide for Health Promotion Practices proposed that the HBM may be useful in the examination of inaction or noncompliance of persons with or at risk for heart disease and stroke[24], suggesting a natural fit for this study. The HBM is a value-expectancy model [17]. It attempts to explain and predict health behaviors by focusing on the attitudes and belief patterns of individuals and groups. The modelconsists of six dimensions: perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action and modifying factors. While the HBM has been criticized for overemphasizing the logical order and rationality of ones health behaviors[28], it is considered to be one of the most influential models in the history of health promotion practice[29], and has shown usefulness in predicting health behaviors among population with or at risk for developing cardiovascular disease. With respect to care-seeking and treatment compliance, a hypertensive patients ability to see a physician and comply to medical treatment regimen is a function of a various factors. These include patients personal knowledge, benefit and perceptions, modifying factors, and cues to action[30]. Therefore, the goal of this study is to explore the use of the HBM as a framework for evaluating care-seeking and treatment compliance in hypertension in south-west Nigeria. Rationale Uncontrolled hypertension is caused by non-adherence to the antihypertensive medication, patients understanding their drug regimens and the necessity to adhere to this regimen will help to improve their adherence, thus help prevent the complications of hypertension that are debilitating and if not prevented can increase the burden of a disease that is already on the increase[31]. Knowledge and beliefs about hypertension have been frequently examined in efforts to better understand the disparities in blood pressure control[33,34]. Relatively few studies, however, have attempted to identify individual factors associated with the adoption of hypertension control behaviors using a health behavior model as the theoretical framework. Thus, this study aims to explore the use of the HBM- an intrapersonal health behavior and psychological model in evaluating care seeking and treatment compliance among hypertensive adults in south west Nigeria. MATERIALS AND METHODS This community-based cross-sectional study was carried out in an urban, low-socio-economic community in Nigeria. Most of the residents belong to the Yoruba ethnic group and the dominant religion is Islam. The health facilities in the community include an outreach clinic run by the Department of Preventive Medicine and Primary Care of the University of Ibadan, four private clinics and a small dental clinic. Other sources of health care in the community include Patent Medicine Vendors (PMVs) and three traditional healing homes. The study site was selected for three specific reasons: Firstly, the community has been the site of previous research studies where people were screened and therefore know of their hypertension status. Secondly, a community study approach (instead of a clinic-based approach) was chosen because selecting participants from a clinic or hospital will only select those who are attending clinic or complying, thereby introducing a selection bias and thirdly, the commun ity has a variety of sources of healthcare located within the community, implying that residents have options when seeking healthcare. The study is a community-based cross-sectional study which enrolled hypertensive adults (age 25 years and above) in the community. It utilized both the survey and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) to collect primary data from the respondents. The participants for this study were selected from a list of known hypertensive adults residing in the community that was developed from a previous hypertension study[35] and updated for the present study during home visits. Four hundred and forty (440) hypertensive subjects were enrolled using a consecutive sampling method. After obtaining informed consent, subjects were administered a semi-structured questionnaire that had items on several issues, including knowledge on causes, prevention and severity of hypertension, healthcare seeking for hypertension, their beliefs and perception about hypertension and compliance with treatment including keeping clinic follow-up appointments and regularly taking their antihypertensive medications. Eight FGDs were conducted, each with 6-8 discussants. The dimensions of the HBM were operationalized as described in table 1, where each dimension was framed as a series of questions, which were asked in the survey and/or discussed as a topic in the FGD. Data entry and management was carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11.0[36]. Univariate analyses were employed in interpreting socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, while a bivariate analysis was used in cross tabulating variables. The transcription of the qualitative data was carried out immediately after each FGD session. This was essential since the memory of the interviewer/note taker was still fresh and it was easier to reconcile written notes and the interview transcripts. Content analysis was used to analyze data from FGD sessions. RESULTS Socio-demographic characteristics A total of 440 (including 287 women) respondents were studied. The ages of respondents ranged from 25 to 90 years, with a mean of 60 (SD 12) years. Most (71%) of the respondents were married and 61.4%, Muslims. Slightly over half of the respondents (51.1%) had no formal education. About half (50%) of the respondents were traders, while those who have retired and not working constituted 25.7%. Prevalence of compliance with clinic visits and taking medication The prevalence of self-reported compliance with clinic appointments was 77.5% and that of good compliance with treatment was 50.7% of respondents. 41.5% reported poor treatment compliance at different levels ranging from regularly missing taking their medication to fairly regularly, sometimes and rarely taking their medication. Perceived Susceptibility to hypertension In response to being asked what they understood by the disease hypertension, most respondents defined hypertension as an illness of anxiety and stress (60.9%). Nearly one in twelve (7.3%) said they did not know what hypertension meant. A few of the respondents (4.1%) believed that hypertension means too much blood in the body, thereby causing tension in the blood. Roughly two percent of respondents said hypertension was in everybodys blood. A quote from one of the FGDs is illustrative: Hypertension is in everybodys body and blood. When we exert undue stress on our body, think too much and do a lot of wahala (stressful things), hypertension will start. This statement clearly articulates the notion that everyone is predisposed to hypertension but the condition only becomes apparent or manifests itself when the person experiences a lot of stress. This could either mean that everyone is predisposed to having hypertension or that hypertension is hereditary. Perceived Severity of hypertension A large proportion 89.8% of the respondents knew that hypertension could lead to other serious health problems or complications. Only 1.1% did not affirm that it will lead to serious problem, while 9.1% did not know if hypertension could lead to other health problems. Other health problems that could result from hypertension mentioned by respondents include: stroke (47.5%); death (25.5%); severe headache (5.2%) and heart attack (5.0%). In the FGD sessions conducted, respondents were asked if they perceived hypertension to be a serious health problem. The general response was that hypertension is a serious health problem. One of the FGD discussants summed it this way: Hypertension is a very serious sickness. It is not sickness we should take lightly. It can lead to quick death. One of my younger brothers who worked in the bank had hypertension. He suffered attacked from hypertension while in the office and before they got to the hospital, he died. Hypertension kills fast. But it has drugs that can control it and if one is not taking the drugs regularly, it will cause serious problem. A fifty-two years old woman used her personal experience to buttress the magnitude of hypertension. She stated that: This sickness they call hypertension is a very serious sickness. I was not taking any drugs because I did not have money to buy it and I was not worried because I was not feeling sick. In 2003, I was sick just for a week and before I knew what was happening I could not walk or move my body. I was rushed to the hospital and they told me my blood pressure was very high. I was in the hospital for almost a month and my children spent a lot of money. I am better now, but am still using walking stick because the hypertension made my body stiff. I am taking my medication always now so that I do not die quickly because it can kill. The general perception of the respondents and focus group discussants on the complications from hypertension is that hypertension itself is a very serious health problem and that any complications arising from it could be very severe. Perceived benefit of treatment compliance Nearly three quarters (73.2%) of the respondents believed that hypertension could be cured with treatment. Most (72.0%) of the respondents reported that it is not good to wait until one feels sick before taking antihypertensive medication and the reason given by a large proportion (30%) of these respondents is that taking medication regularly will prevent reoccurrence of hypertension. Despite the fact that respondents believe they needed to take medication as prescribed (and not only when they are sick), only a relatively small proportion (a little above 50%) of the respondents did take their medication as prescribed. Perceived barriers to complying with treatment Among the respondents, 41.5% had poor compliance at different levels ranging from regularly missing taking their medication to fairly regularly, sometimes and rarely taking their medication. Of these respondents who were non-compliant with their medication, 11.4% said they felt better and therefore had no need to continue taking their medication. Only 0.5% said they were tired of taking drugs, while 6.8% stopped because of lack of funds to purchase drugs. Other factors included side effects of drugs (6.1%), forgetfulness (8.4%), busy schedule and limited medication (3.6%). A major theme from the survey and FGDs is that respondents were apprehensive of the long term effects from antihypertensive medication and the possibility of being stuck with it for the rest of ones life or the medication causing other illness or complications. Negative feelings were elicited in some cases, as antihypertensive drugs were perceived as being damaging or not good for the body. The FGDs highlighted fac tors that hindered good compliance to treatment despite the general acceptance of the necessity to take antihypertensive medications. One of the discussant said: I do not take my medicine every day. People do not always follow what doctor say. It is not only for hypertension, even for other sickness. If they say take medicine for five days, once we feel better by thethird day, the person will stop. Even the doctors themselves, will they swallow medicine every day? A discussant in another session stated: Let me tell you the truth it is not easy to be taking drugs every day. Sometimes, we forget especially when you are rushing to go out. Sometimes we do not have the money to buy it. Another respondent added details about what often happens as a result of the financial obstacles: That is what we have all been trying to say. Money is the major problem. In the hospital, they will ask you to pay for ordinary card, before you see the doctor. When they write drugs for you there is no money to buy all. If you do not have money and you go to a private hospital, they will not even attend to you. That is why some people prefer to just go to chemist and buy what they can afford and some others prefer traditional medicine because you do not have to drink it every day and it is less expensive. Cues to action An important source of cues to action includes the individuals cultural conditioning of available treatment options. In this study family and friends were a major source of cues to action. Overall, 19.3% of respondents reported that family members were very concerned about their hypertension while 74.8% said family members were extremely concerned about their hypertension. Also, 20.2% and 73.2% respectively reported that family members were very helpful or extremely helpful in reminding them about taking their medication. Regarding support from friends, 26.4% of respondents reported that friends were very concerned about their hypertension while 28.9% said friends were extremely concerned about their hypertension. Out of the 440 respondents, 91 and 150 (20.7% and 34.1%) respectively reported that friends were very helpful or extremely helpful in reminding them about taking their medication (Figure 1). DISCUSSION Hypertension is a condition of sustained high blood pressure which can only be confirmed after blood pressure measurements that meet the criteria for the condition. The cause of hypertension is not known in most cases[1] hence the term essential hypertension. In the present study, hypertension is perceived primarily as an illness of anxiety and stress. This finding is consistent with a previous study of hypertension in Nigeria[38] which revealed that over 60% of their respondents irrespective of the educational background believe that psychosocial stress is the main cause of hypertension. Similarly, Koslowsky et al[39] found that stress and tension were most commonly stated as causes of hypertension. Majority (more 90%) in this study believe hypertension is a serious condition and two-thirds (66%) believe that hypertension can be prevented. Contrary to findings and reports from previous studies[38,40,41], nearly three-quarters (73%) of respondents in the present study believe that hy pertension is curable. Almost half of the respondents claim good compliance with respect to drug treatment and 86% claim good compliance with keeping their doctors appointment. Reasons for compliance to treatment include fear of the complications of hypertension and the desire to control blood pressure. Benson and Britten[42] reported that patients comply with medication regimen for a variety of reasons including perceived benefits of medication; fear of complications associated with hypertension and feeling better on medication. The latter reason is contrary to the generally held belief among physicians that hypertension is a largely asymptomatic disease[43]. One central theme that runs through the data in this study is the issue of socio-economic status of the respondents. This suggests the importance of considering other variables that can help form individuals perception including health care costs and some sort of lay consultation that takes place before they resolve to take a recommended health action[27]. Financial hardship is a barrier which should not be ignored as it is a contributory factor to noncompliance. This finding corroborates the observed association between poor compliance, ignorance and lack of funds for purchase of drugs[44]. Failure of patients to keep scheduled appointments is an important obstacle to the provision of effective healthcare. By missing appointments, individuals deprive themselves of professional services. Interestingly, 77.5% of the respondents in this study claim they comply with keeping their follow up clinic appointments every time. Several studies have investigated HBM and appointment-keeping for chronic disease management. Nelson et al[20] and also Landers et al[45] found HBM variables to be unrelated to keeping clinic appointments for hypertension. Social support networks are important in the long-term management of chronic conditions such as hypertension, which require a radical and life-long change in the lifestyle of the affected person. In this study, those who had support from friends or family members (concerned about their illness, giving reminders about medication) showed better treatment compliance than those who did not, although this difference was greatest for those that had the support of friends. This is an important finding and is consistent with what has been reported for multiple chronic diseases in several parts of the world[46]. A summary of the major findings in this study in the context of interpreting compliance using the significant components of the HBM shown in Figure 1 suggests that HBM Perceived Susceptibility components tested were significant predictors of compliance. On the other hand, HBM Perceived Seriousness components were not significantly associated with compliance. The main HBM Perceived Benefit of Taking Action component that was prominent in this study is the belief that hypertension can be cured. This is a recurring theme in all the components of the study (survey and FGD) and most respondents believed that taking the medication for some time led to a cure and one could stop taking medication. This finding agrees with studies of Kamran et al[47], which showed a relationship between HBM constructs and treatment compliance. The constructs that were significantly showing relationship in their study were perceived susceptibility, perceived benefit of using the medicine and perceived barrier to treatment. This has major personal and public health implications because hypertension can only be controlled (not cured) and stopping medication can lead to complications. More importantly, it highlights the discrepancy between healthcare providers and their patients in the perceived goal of treatment since the former are working towards control while the latter believe compliance can lead to cure. Most of the HBM Barriers to Taking Action components emerged during the FGD sessions. These barriers are practical issues that loom large and prevent the patients from making optimum use of the hospitals and medications that are available. In other words, the option of a university teaching hospital is available but is not accessible because of costs and inconvenience. Similarly, known medications that work well in hypertension are available but the costs are too high for the patients to comply with the prescriptions as written. It is noteworthy that believing that one can stop taking the medication after some time can also serve as a barrier to compliance because the individual now believes there is no need for more medication. Another major finding from this study is that HBM Cues to Action are extremely important in predicting compliance with hypertension treatment in this community. These cues are centered on patients having family members and/or friends who are concerned about the individuals health and treatment. This finding is important because, as noted by Harrison et al[48] in a meta-analysis, cues are often not included in Health Belief Model studies. Indeed, these authors limited their review to articles to the four major components of the HBM (susceptibility, severity, benefits and costs) because in their words: Cues to action have received so little attention in empirical studies that we excluded this dimension. However, the findings of this study shows that cues are an important dimension in these types of study. While the specific cues that are important may vary between locations, cultures, and environments, they emphasize the social context in which health behavior takes place. As expected, attending clinic regularly is an important predictor of compliance in the present study. It provides an opportunity for multiple cues that can improve compliance, including blood pressure checks, discussing actions to control blood pressure, and reminders to take medication. CONCLUSION Components of the HBM show variation in association with treatment compliance for hypertension in this Nigerian community. The findings provide useful baseline data for future studies of the Health Belief Model in hypertension and other chronic conditions in similar societies. Strength and limitations of the study Strengths of this study include: the use of both survey and FGD methods; inclusion of a large set of variables and focus on the components of the HBM to a non-communicable disease (hypertension) in a developing country context. A potential limitation is that the study did not formally investigate the modifying factors dimension of the HBM. Nonetheless, the findings provide clues to care-seeking and compliance issues, while suggesting potential intervention points (e.g. breaking the cost barrier, including social networks in treatment plans) that could be further studied and tested. Ethical Approval Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Joint University of Ibadan /University College Hospital Ethical Committee. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to the study participants and community leaders of Idikan community, Ibadan. The input of Dr. Bernard Owumi and Dr. Patricia Awa Taiwo of the Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan, is hereby acknowledged.    REFERENCES 1Mukhopadhyay, B. Detecting and preventing hypertension in remote areas. Ind. J Med Ethics 2006; 3(4): 124-5 2 Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K, Adair-Rohani H, et al. 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The Dangers of Angina Pectoris Essay -- Health Coronary Heart Disease

The Dangers of Angina Pectoris 3 Introduction 4 The Human Heart 5 Symptoms of Coronary Heart Disease 5 Heart Attack 5 Sudden Death 5 Angina 6 Angina Pectoris 6 Signs and Symptoms 7 Different Forms of Angina 8 Causes of Angina 9 Atherosclerosis 9 Plaque 10 Lipoproteins 10 Lipoproteins and Atheroma 11 Risk Factors 11 Family History 11 Diabetes 11 Hypertension 11 Cholesterol 12 Smoking 12 Multiple Risk Factors 13 Diagnosis 14 Drug Treatment 14 Nitrates 14 Beta-blockers 15 Calcium antagonists 15 Other Medications 16 Surgery 16 Coronary Bypass Surgery 17 Angioplasty 18 Self-Help INTRODUCTION In today's society, people are gaining medical knowledge at quite a fast pace. Treatments, cures, and vaccines for various diseases and disorders are being developed constantly, and yet, coronary heart disease remains the number one killer in the world. The media today concentrates intensely on drug and alcohol abuse, homicides, AIDS and so on. What a lot of people are not realizing is that coronary heart disease actually accounts for about 80% of all sudden deaths. In fact, the number of deaths from heart disease approximately equals to the number of deaths from cancer, accidents, chronic lung disease, pneumonia and influenza, and others, COMBINED. One of the symptoms of coronary heart disease is angina pectoris. Unfortunately, a lot of people do not take it seriously, and thus not realizing that it may lead to other complications, and even death. THE HUMAN HEART In order to understand angina, one must know about our own heart. The human heart is a powerful muscle in the body which is worked the hardest. A double pump system, the heart consists of two pumps side by side, which pump blood to all parts of the body. Its steady beating maintains the flow of blood through the body day and night, year after year, non-stop from birth until death. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ slightly bigger than a person's clenched fist. It is located in the centre of the chest, under the breastbone above the sternum, but it is slanted slightly to the left, giving people the impression that their heart is on the left side of their chest. The heart is divided into two halves, which are further divided into four chambers: the left atrium and ventricle, and the right atrium and ventricle. Each chamber on one side is... ...erward. Exactly how long the operation takes depends on where and in how many places the artery is narrowed. It is most suitable when the disease is limited to the left anterior descending artery, but sometimes the plaques are simply too hard, making them impossible to be squashed, in which case a bypass might be necessary. SELF-HELP The only way patients can prevent the condition of their heart from deteriorating any further is to change their lifestyles. Although drugs and surgery exist, if the heart is exposed to pressure continuously and it strains any further, there will come one day when nothing works, and all that remain is a one-way ticket to heaven. The following are some advices on how people can change the way they live, and enjoy a lifetime with a healthy heart once more. Work A person should limit the amount of exertions to the point where angina might occur. This varies from person to person, some people can do just as much work as they did before developing angina, but only at a slower pace. Try to delegate more, reassess your priorities, and learn to pace yourself. If the rate of work is uncontrollable, think about changing the job.